SAQ 12

1. From the cases summarized above, explain what constitute a computer crime.

Computer crime for me means any malicious act that would directly or indirectly cause intangible and tangible damage to other person’s computers, network, reputation, business and other electronic property and/or media.

2. Discuss at least three other examples of computer crimes.

Reverse Spamming – Is an act wherein hate messages are sent to different users in different networks normally using different header in an effort to clog a particular network when the recipient of the hate messages respond. The reverse spammer in question does not know or does not care whose address he has sent. After the submission process, every email address in the list starts receiving junk mail from this reverse spammer.

Plagiarism - giving publicity (publishing), in full or partially, to someone else’s production under the name of a person who is not the author of this work. It means taking credit for something which don’t own.

Cyber Terrorism – is an act of using the Cyberspace to threaten International governments, or terrorize the citizens of a country. The crime of "cracking" can escalate into terrorism when an individual "cracks" into a government or military maintained website.

Six Perspectives

SAQ 10

1. Discuss one of the issues taken up in this module from the point of view of the preliminary and finalist theories discussed in modules 3 and 4.

Pornography is being defined as the depiction of erotic behavior intended to cause sexual excitement.

PRELIMINARY THEORIES

Ethical Relativism

Espouses that each moral situation is unique and that no absolute universal truths apply. Under this theory, Pornography is not morally bad at all as nudity of the human body may be considered artistic. Hence, if the pornographic scene was done “for the sake of art” then it is not morally wrong just like what our boldstars are contesting.

Ethical Absolutism

Ethical absolutism simply argues that one must follow a consistent ethical standard, one that is universal in nature.

Under this theory, If pornography is indeed wrong then the same should be so regardless of intent and purpose of the pornographic scene.

Ethical Egoism

This theory depicts human beings are being completely and exclusively egoistic. They are preoccupied solely with seeking the satisfaction or pleasure of desires that are then considered morally good.

This theory will consider pornography as morally right if it gives you pleasure or if it quenches your desires. If pornography does not excite you or you don’t enjoy viewing erotic scenes, then pornography can be considered as morally wrong.

FINALIST THEORIES

John Stuart’s Mill’s Utilitarianism

This principle advocates that happiness is the very yardstick of morality. According to Mill, the only things that are desirable as ends are pleasure and freedom from pain. Hence, if viewing lewd materials gives a man/woman pleasure and happiness, then, pornography is morally right.

Immanuel Kant’s Categorical Imperatives

Kant adheres to the philosophical belief that only good will can be considered “good” per se or without qualification. Kant argues that an act is good not because of certain consequences that occur in the performance, or on the basis of its end-result, but because of the “willing” that accompanies the act.

Under this theory, pornography can be considered morally wrong if the “will” the employs the viewing of the lewd material is not good in itself. Also, if the “will” contradicts with reason then the act is not considered as totally moral.

Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics

The central concept in Aristotle’s ethics is “virtue” thus, his ethical theory is sometimes referred to as “Virtue Ethics.”

Under this principle, pornography can be considered morally wrong or right depending on the dictates of reason (through discernment and sensitivity). The context therefore plays a big role in its determining if an act is indeed right or wrong.

An Example of Social Justice Issue

SAQ 9

1. Choose one of the social justice issues in computing discussed above and find out to what extent it is an issue in the Philippines. Then find our what is being done to address it in specific countries.

One social justice issue that our government neglects is the issue of access to the Internet of Filipinos with physical disabilities. While other countries (such as Germany, Britain and the US) are spending a considerable amount of there budget for research and development to develop the technology that will allow people with physical disabilities (such as the blind) to use the computer and access the Internet, in the Philippines, this is not given enough emphasis. Our government cannot even provide Internet access to far-flung barangays and municipalities, how much more Internet access to Filipinos with physical disabilities. That is precisely why here in our country, most of our brothers and sisters who have physical disabilities end up begging for alms instead of being productive and self-sufficient just like their counterpart in the industrially-developed countries.

Computer Abuse (SAQ 7 Item 3)

SAQ 7 Item 3

Choose one example of computer abuse which you think is morally wrong. Explain why you consider it morally wrong using any of the ethical principles you have learned in the earlier modules.

Personally, I think all forms of computer abuses are morally wrong. Anyway, is there a form of abuse which can be considered morally right? Computer abuses normally violates the rights of other computer users which runs counter to the established norms and ethical standards of our society.

SAQ 6-1

SAQ 6-1

B. Pick three of the precepts on computer use discussed above and briefly explain each precept in terms of the theory of ethics and the ethical concepts (discussed in Modules 1-4) that underpin it.

“Thou shalt not use a computer to harm other people”

The ethical theory that underpin this precept is Immanuel Kant’s Categorical Imperatives. Kant adheres to the philosophical belief that only good will can be considered “good” per se or without justification. Refraining using a computer to harm other people is considered moral and a duty of each and everyone of us in order to maintain order in our computing world.

“Thou shalt not use a computer to steal”

This precept has its roots from Natural Law which advocates righteousness, justice, equity and fairness. Stealing someone’s property, be it tangible or not, is against the precepts of Natural Law which promotes the practice of respecting others in order to attain the common good.

“Thou shalt think about the social consequences of the program you write.”

This precept has its roots in Ethical altruism which promotes the good of others. By taking into account the consequences of the programs we wrote and the impact it will have to the computing world, we should refrain from designing programs that will negatively affect computer users.


C. Cite two ethical issues in computing. Explain how they are ethical in nature.

1. Use of licensed software – it is ethical to use licensed software since you are recognizing the intellectual property rights of the maker of the software. This is ethical because it adheres to the universal principle of fairness, righteousness, equity and justice.

2. Designing and making freewares. When a programmer designs a computer software for everyone for free, it is ethical since you are helping millions of people who could not afford the licensed software counterpart.

D. As a computer user, do you approve of an ordering principle, in the form of legislation, being formulated and enforced to govern computer use? Why? Why not?

It would depend on the specific provisions that will be included in the legislation. If the intent of the legislation is to promote the common good, why not. However, if there are provisions on the legislation which will impede freedom of computer users, then, I will not support such a law.

SAQ 4 Finalist Theories

SAQ 4-1

1. Which of the finalist theories appeals to you the most?

Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics appeal to me the most because it is the most practical and applicable to our modern society. If only all people will aspire to live virtuous life, then almost all of our problems are already eradicated.

The decaying morality in our society is the primary reason why we have so many perennial problems that until now we fail to solve. Previous administrations have devised programs for moral recovery because our leaders knew that it would be very difficult to attain prosperity and true economic growth if our leaders and citizens are immoral. The progress of a country depends on the quality of people that it has. If our leaders are indeed serious in its campaign to attain economic growth and prosperity to our citizenry, perhaps the best place to start is recovering morality in our society.

2. Which do you think seems to predominate in the world of computing as you know it?

In the world of computing, Kant’s Categorical Imperatives and Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics predominate.

According to Kant, “To duty every other motive must give place, because duty is the condition of a will good in itself, whose worth transcends everything.”

If all computer users only uses his/her reason and knowing that he/she has the duty to respect the rights of other computer users, then computer issues and problems could be minimize if not eradicated.

Similarly, under Aristotle’s theory that life of reason is the happiest, since computing is a human action, it follows that the norms or standard of morality apply to it. I agree with the observation that “There are issues in computing because computer users from time to time go beyond the confines of integrity and goodness.” We should not forget that computing as a human action is subject to evaluation through certain norms of ethical value.

SAQ 2

SAQ 2-1

1. What relevance, if any, does the study of the concept of law, in general, have in computing and your study of computer ethics?

Just like any other things in this world, a computer can be a boon or a bane to humanity. With the rapid advancement of technology, comes with it the widespread computer crimes and abuses. Incorporating topics of concepts of law, morality and the like in the curriculum of students taking up IT-related courses is imperative in order for the students to have a firm grasp of computer ethics in general and hence give them enough foundation in order to practice their profession ethically.

2. List down two laws governing computer use and explain what type of non-jural law seem to underpin these two laws.

1. Anti-hacking or cracking Law.

a. Divine Law and Moral Law

It is wrong to access others computer systems without proper authorization from the owner(s). Hacking or cracking is intrusion or another person’s privacy and property and hence it violates divine law and moral law.

2. Anti-Piracy Law.

a. Divine Law and Moral Law

Piracy or the unauthorized copying, reproduction, dissemination, distribution, importation, use, removal … is divinely and morally wrong. Piracy can be considered as qualified thief, hence it infringes established moral and religious standards.

Code of Ethics for Teachers

Almost all of the provisions in the Code of Ethics for Teachers are geared towards the safety, protection, and rights of students and colleagues, fairness in treating them and proper behaviour and conduct of teachers in the delivery of instruction and other activities. Also, teachers must at all times exercise their authority to see to it that a conducive environment for learning is always present.

The Case of Rona

Assuming that I am the assigned judge handling the case of Rona, I would find Rona guilty of the charge against her (since it is a general law/principle that stealing is unethical and in the absence of specific laws - general law applies, In fact specific laws are derived from general laws/principles), but my punishment would be very light such as subjecting Rona to community service and of course ordering her payment of damages to Jojo. My basis for judging are the following circumstances:

1. There are no aggravating circumstances to the committed act.

2. The trial is in a neutral territory which means that the laws on IPR is “loose”. Which means again that if Rona can afford to hire a clever lawyer, the lawyer will definitely capitalize on “technicalities”.

3. As a judge, I would give Rona the “benefit of a doubt” considering that she came from a place in which no law prohibits the reproduction and trading of intellectual property like computer software and the like.

4. This is the first offense of Rona (assuming that this is indeed the first!)

Three Definitions of Ethics

SAQ 1-1 Question no. 1
1. Ethics is derived from the Greek term “ethos”, which means character or custom. Its equivalent term in Roman is the word “mores”, from which words like morality, morals, and moral are derived. Ethics is intertwined with customs and traditions believed in or adopted by a particular community. Since customs are relative, what is “ethical” would depend on whether or not it conforms to existing customs.

Example: There is a pending bill in congress today seeking the legalization of abortion in the Philippines. While abortion in other developed countries is legal and hence perceived as ethical, most Filipinos regard killing an unborn child as not only unethical but also a sin.

2. Ethics is the study of the morality of human actions.

Example: Our high-ranking government officials, legislators and military personnel are expected to live simple lifestyles (because they are our models!) – lifestyles within the bounds of their “legal” compensation. However, much to our regret, these people live sophisticated lifestyles. It is not uncommon to learn that a certain congressman spent One hundred thousand pesos P100,000.00 in a KTV bar in a single night (Galit sa pera!). It not uncommon to learn that a lot of generals have unexplained wealth. And how about those government officials who can afford to lose millions of pesos in casinos and can maintain 3-4 wives all living in exclusive subdivisions with matching luxurious vehicles?

Where did they get huge amount of money to finance their lavish lifestyles? Most of them are not wealthy when they started serving the government. How come they were able to amass such wealth in a short span of time? How come they can sustain such a lifestyle wherein most of them are earning only 40,000-75,000 pesos per month.

The only possible reason to these is that some government officials are involved in graft and corruption and illegal activities such as drugs, kidnapping, gun-running, illegal gambling and the like - which is of course unethical. This is one of the diseases of the society. This is one of the reasons why we fail to attain true progress and economic growth because of the quality of leaders that we have. It is indeed true that our economic, political and social problems are degenerating because we are losing our morality.

3. Ethics is the study and philosophy of human conduct with emphasis on the determination of right and wrong.

Example: In most offices, it is common to see some employees taking sheets of bond paper, pens, scotch tape and the like and bring them home for their personal use. Some of these employees argue that since the involved amount is trivial, their act is not necessarily unethical or wrong. They normally contend “Anyway, everybody is doing it!” But being right and being wrong does not depend on the amount being questioned. Since you are violating the rules and regulation of a certain institution, then, the act of stealing small items in the office is wrong, hence, it is unethical. It has been said that “If you cannot be trusted with small things, How can you be trusted with bigger things?”.